PHOTO DE PRESSE 1931 AVEC CAMERON FORBES AMBASSADEUR GOUVERNEUR GÉNÉRAL DES ÉTATS-UNIS PHILIPPINES officiel

The Philippines (/ˈfɪlɪpiːnz/ i; Filipino: Pilipinas),[14] officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas),[d] is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. In the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of 7,641 islands which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. It is the worlds twelfth-most-populous country, with diverse ethnicities and cultures. Manila is the countrys capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City; both are within Metro Manila.

Negritos, the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples. The adoption of Animism, Hinduism, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus, rajas, and sultans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of King Philip II of Castile. Spanish settlement via New Spain, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Crown of Castile, as part of the Spanish Empire, for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, which became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. After the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese, the Philippines became independent in 1946. The country has had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship in a nonviolent revolution.

The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit; it is a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity.

Etymology

Main article: Names of the Philippines

During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after King Philip II of Castile (then Prince of Asturias). Eventually, the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used for the archipelagos Spanish possessions.[15]: 6  Other names, such as "Islas del Poniente" (Western Islands), "Islas del Oriente" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellans name, and "San Lázaro" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.[16][17][18]

During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the República Filipina (the Philippine Republic).[19] American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name).[20] The United States began changing its nomenclature from "the Philippine Islands" to "the Philippines" in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law.[21] The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state,[22] and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.[23][24]

History

Main article: History of the Philippines

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Philippine history.

Prehistory (pre–900)

Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.[25] A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.[26][27] The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.[28] Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.[29]

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs)[30] and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC,[31][32] with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.[33] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.[34]

Early states (900–1565)

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565)

The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics.[35] By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes.[36] Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.[37]: 3 [38] Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, and expanded during the Song dynasty;[39] by the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the tributary system of China.[15]: 177–178 [37]: 3  Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, probably via the Hindu Majapahit Empire.[40][41] By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.[36]

Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila,[42] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[43] The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.[37]: 3 [44]: 672  Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan).[45] When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically-looser alliance,[37]: 3 [46] their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[47]: 58 [34] rajah or sultan,[48] and would rule the community.[49] Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries[47]: 18  due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[50] Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapus men in the Battle of Mactan.[51]: 21 [52]: 261 

Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1946)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

See caption

Manila, 1847

Colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain (Spanish: Nueva España) in 1565.[53][54]: 20–23  Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew.[55] Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571,[56][57] Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[58] The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer,[52]: 374  bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.[59][60] Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity.[61]: 53, 68 [62] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence.[63]: 81  Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade[64] by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.[65][66]

During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts[63]: 111–122  and defending against external military attacks,[67]: 1077 [68] including Moro piracy, [69] a 17th century war against the Dutch, 18th century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.[70]: 4 [undue weight? – discuss]

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,[67]: 1077  and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.[47]: 7–8 [71] The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown[67]: 1077  averaging 250,000 pesos,[47]: 8  usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.[72] British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[54]: 81–83  The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[73][74] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century,[75] and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.[76][77]

Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.

Ilustrados in Madrid around 1890

Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.[78][79] Social identity changed, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.[80][81]

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds.[82][83] This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.[84] Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.[85] Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.[63]: 137 

The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[86] Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution.[87]: 145–147  The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.[88]: 26  In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War.[89][90]

The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.[91]

Filipino General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the Philippine-American War.

The United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, beginning the Philippine–American War.[92] The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.[93] Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died.[94][95] After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act.[96] American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,[87]: 200–202 [93] securing the Sultanate of Sulu,[97][98] establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,[99] and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.[100][101]

Douglas MacArthur, Sergio Osmeña, and Osmeñas staff wading ashore in knee-deep water

General Douglas MacArthur and Sergio Osmeña (left) coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944

Cultural developments strengthened a national identity,[102][103]: 12  and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.[61]: 121  Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft Commission;[67]: 1081, 1117  the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act began the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio Osmeña vice president.[104] Quezons priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.[67]: 1081, 1117  Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,[105]: 27–29  womens suffrage was introduced,[106][52]: 416  and land reform was considered.[107][108][109]

The Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines during World War II,[110] and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel.[111][112] Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.[113][114][115] Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.[116][117] Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945, and over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.[118][119] On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations.[120][121]: 38–41  On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the countrys independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila.[121]: 38–41 [122]

Independence (1946–present)

The leaders of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos (4th from left) on October 24, 1966.

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1946–1965), History of the Philippines (1965–1986), and History of the Philippines (1986–present)

Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysays presidency,[123] but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.[124] Under Magsaysays successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses.[61]: 182  Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldos declaration—[125] and pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo.[126][127]

In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969.[128]: 58 [129] Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972[130] using the specter of communism[131][132][133] and began to rule by decree;[134] the period was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations.[135][136] Monopolies controlled by Marcos cronies were established in key industries,[137][138][139] including logging[140] and broadcasting;[52]: 120  a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros.[141] With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds.[142][143] Marcos heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.[144]: 212 [145]

On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport.[146] Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986[147] which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.[148] The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution,[149][150] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii. Aquinos widow, Corazon, was installed as president.[149]

A huge ash cloud, seen from a distance

The June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[151]

The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.[152][128]: xii, xiii  A communist insurgency[153][154] and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted;[155] the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991.[151] Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation.[156][157] Ramos economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[158][159] His successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing[160] but faced corruption allegations[161] which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001.[162] Arroyos nine-year administration was marked by economic growth,[9] but was tainted by corruption and political scandals.[163][164] On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao.[165][166] Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino IIIs administration, which advocated good governance and transparency.[167][168] Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law.[169][170]

Rodrigo Duterte, elected president in 2016,[171] launched an infrastructure program[172][173] and an anti-drug campaign[174][175] which reduced drug proliferation[176] but has also led to extrajudicial killings.[177][178] The Bangsamoro Organic Law was enacted in 2018.[179] In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines;[180][181] its gross domestic product shrank by 9.5 percent, the countrys worst annual economic performance since 1947.[182] Marcos son, Bongbong Marcos, won the 2022 presidential election; Dutertes daughter, Sara, became vice president.[183]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of the Philippines and List of islands of the Philippines

Map of the Philippines, color-coded by elevation

The Philippines is generally mountainous; uplands make up 65 percent of the countrys total land area.[44]: 38 [184]

The Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands,[185][186] covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi).[9][c] Stretching 1,850 kilometres (1,150 mi) north to south,[188] from the South China Sea to the Celebes Sea,[189] the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east,[190][191] and the Sulu Sea to the southwest.[192] The countrys 11 largest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol and Masbate, about 95 percent of its total land area.[193] The Philippines coastline measures 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi), the worlds fifth-longest,[194] and the countrys exclusive economic zone covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi).[195]

Its highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level.[9] The Philippines longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about 520 kilometers (320 mi).[196] Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila,[197] is connected to Laguna de Bay[198] (the countrys largest lake) by the Pasig River.[199]

On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity.[200]: 4  The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions.[201][202] About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt.[203] The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon.[204] The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions.[205][8]: 26 

The country has valuable[206] mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.[207][208] It is thought to have the worlds second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits,[209] and the worlds largest deposits of palladium.[210] Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc.[211] However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.[209][212]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of the Philippines

See also: List of threatened species of the Philippines

Water buffalo with large, curved horns, seen from above

The carabao is the national animal of the Philippines. It symbolizes, strength, power, efficiency, perseverance and hard work.[213]

The Philippines is a megadiverse country,[214][215] with some of the worlds highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent).[216][217] With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic),[218] Philippine rain forests have an array of flora:[219][220] about 3,500 species of trees,[221] 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid species[222] have.